1. Introduction

Human migration is the movement of people within or across a political boundary for the purpose of taking up permanent or semipermanent residence. Human migration can be either voluntary or involuntary. The former occurs when people choose to move while the latter occurs when people are forced to move. Migration has been an integral part of human history. The premodern migration of humans began with the movement of Homo erectus out of Africa across the preset day Europe and Asia about a million years ago.

During the modern era, human migration continues due to a number of pull and push factors such as the natural environment (e.g., Climate changes, natural disaster); political conditions (e.g., war); Economic factors (e.g., work) and cultural concerns (e.g., religious freedom, education). These factors may explain both voluntary migration such as labour migration, and urbanisation as well as involuntary migration such as slavery, human trafficking and ethnic cleansing. Wars, ethnic cleansing, and lack of political freedom uprooted about 42 million people in the world at present [4].

Today’s global socioeconomic advancement is unthinkable without human migration. The current world economic and military superpower, the United States of America, is shaped primarily by the European immigrants into the continent following the 1492 discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus. The contribution of involuntary slave labour and economic migrants in the industrialisation of Western societies was equally immense. In spite of such massive social, cultural and economic contributions of migration, human mobility faces serious global challenges today.

In its 2009 Human Development Report, entitled “Overcoming barriers: human mobility and development,” the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) identified three major global challenges to migration. These are (a) misconceptions about migration, (b) barriers to human movements, and (c) the mistreatment of the movers. In this brief article, we try to examine these challenges in a greater detail.

2. The Misconceptions about Migration

a) Global perspective

At present, the process of migration is perceived to be a movement of people from developing countries to rich, developed countries of North America, Europe and Australia. However, in reality, most human movements in the world do not take place between developing and developed countries or between any countries for that matter.

The UNDP (2009) Report challenges these common misconceptions. According to this report, the overwhelming majority of the human migration is internal, i.e. it takes place within countries [1]. Of the estimated 940 million migrants in the world, 740 million migrants or 79 percent are internal migrants while only about 200 million or 21 percent have migrated across the political boundaries with in regions or across the globe.

Furthermore, most of the 200 million international migrants moved from one developing country to another or between developed countries. Among international migrants, less than 30 percent move from developing to developed countries. There are an estimated 14 million refugees living outside of their country of citizenship representing about 7 percent of the world’s migrants. Most remain near the country they fled, typically living in camps until conditions at home allow their return, but around half a million per year travel to developed countries and seek asylum there. Much larger number about 26 million have been internally displaced due to conflicts or natural disaster. Another vulnerable group includes young woman who have been displaced through people trafficking [1].

Ravenstein’s laws of migration formulated in the 1880s that form the basis for modern migration theory [2] would help explain the current misconceptions about migration. These principles state: (a) Most migrants travel only a short distance, (b) Migrants travelling long distances usually settle in urban areas, (c) Most migration occurs in steps, (d) Most migration is rural to urban, (e) Each migration flow produces a movement in the opposite direction (“counterflow”) (European migration to Africa during the colonial era has produced the current counterflow to Europe), (f) Most migrants are adults, and (h) Most international migrants are young males, while more internal migrants are female.

According to UNDP (2009), contrary to commonly held beliefs, migrants typically boost economic output and give more than they take. Detailed investigations show that immigration generally increases employment in host communities, does not crowd out locals from the job market and improves rates of investment in new businesses and initiatives. Overall, the impact of migrants on public finances–both national and local–is relatively small, while there is ample evidence of gains in other areas such as social diversity and the capacity for innovation [3].

a) African perspective: Are too many Africans migrating to the west at present?

The current perception about African emigration to the west is that far too many people are migrating than the host countries in the west, especially in Europe could cope. However, migration theory and practice has shown that people in poor countries are the least mobile compared to people in more developed countries. According to the UNDP (2009) estimate, Africans are the least mobile people in the world; fewer than 1 percent of Africans have moved to Europe so far while only 3 percent of Africans live outside their country of birth. Indeed, history and contemporary evidence suggest that development and migration go hand in hand: the median emigration rate in a country with low human development as in most sub Saharan Africa is below 4 percent, compared to more than 8 percent from countries with high levels of human development [1].

The recent commitment of the Libyan leader Muammar Qaddafi, the self proclaimed African “King of Kings” and the proponent of the wishful “United States of Africa,” to end migration from the sub Saharan countries to Europe through inhuman treatment of migrants (watch BBC Panorama programme by Paul Kenyon aired on the 5th October 2009), is a result of this gross misconception about African emigration. It is undeniable that the African migration to Europe and the Middle East has increased in recent years. Many young Africans risked their lives to escape abject poverty, civil wars and political repressions in sub Saharan Africa. Hundreds of these young men and woman perished in the Red Sea in recent years due to either inhuman actions of the traffickers who sometimes offload these desperate migrants in the middle of the sea for fear of detention or due to accidents related to the overcrowding of small boats on which these migrants travel.

These recent waves of migration from Africa are caused by strong push and pull factors. Although the African economies have grown by about 5% on the average for the past 5 years for the first time in the history of the continent, the absolute poverty in the sub Saharan countries has actually increased. Civil wars have continued in Somalia, Sudan, DRC and so on forcing, for example, the Somalis to become the third biggest migrants in the world. Political repression continued in several parts of the continent. In fact 50% of the world’s authoritarian regimes are found in Africa alone and often many of these dictatorial regimes are close allies of European countries and the United States of America. What does the world expect Africans to do in the face of such hostile push factors? To stay at home and perish?

Among the pull factors, Europe’s relative proximity to Africa and the rapid expansion of the IT technology to Africa has improved the awareness about opportunities in Europe. Europeans migrated to Africa and exploited its resources during the colonial era when they needed raw materials and capital for their expanding industries. The current African migration to Europe is a counterflow and both destination and origin countries have historic responsibilities to adress this challenge.

The long term solution for the current increased immigration of Africans to Europe is not emigration austerity measures. The long term solution is to address the push factors at the origin. Advanced economies must increase their investment in Africa and help create jobs locally if they are determined to reduce the influx of Africans to their countries. They should stop selling arms to warlords in Africa. They must immediately cut their ties with the African dictators and ensure that no regime which victimises its own citizens becomes the friend of the west and is provided with financial and military assistances which are often misused.

3. Barriers to movement and mistreatment of movers

Today, we live in a highly mobile global village where migration is not only inevitable but also an important dimension of human development. Nearly one billion–or one out of seven–people are migrants. According to the UNDP (2009) Report, migration can enhance human development for the people who move, for destination communities and for those who remain at home. The Report argues that migration can improve the livelihood of the movers by increasing their income, and improving their health and education prospects; but the most important benefit of migration is being able to decide where to live as this is a key element of fundamental human freedom.

The Report argues further that migrants boost economic output, at little or no cost to locals. Indeed, there may be broader positive effects, for instance when the availability of migrants for childcare allows resident mothers to work outside the home. As migrants acquire the language and other skills needed to move up the income ladder, many integrate quite naturally, making fears about inassimilable foreigners equally unwarranted.

Yet, migration is significantly constrained both by policies that impose barriers to entry and by the resources the migrants have at their disposal to enable their move. The share of international migrants in the world’s population has remained remarkably stable at around 3 percent over the past 50 years, despite factors that could have been expected to increase flows. Demographic trends–an aging population in developed countries and young, still-rising populations in developing countries–and growing employment opportunities, combined with cheaper communications and transport, have increased the ‘demand’ for migration. However, those wishing to migrate have increasingly come up against government-imposed barriers to movement. Over the past century, the number of nation states has quadrupled to almost 200, creating more borders to cross, while policy changes have further limited the scale of migration even as barriers to trade fell [1]. Barriers to mobility are especially high for people with low skills, despite the demand for their labour in many rich countries.

However, migration does not always bring benefits. The extent to which people are able to gain from moving depends greatly on the conditions under which they move. The poor are often constrained by lack of resources, information and barriers in their new host communities and countries. For too many people movement reflects the repercussions of conflict, natural disaster or severe economic hardship. Some women end up in trafficking networks, lose significant freedoms and suffer physical danger [3].

4. Overcoming barriers

The Report argues that large gains to human development can be achieved by lowering the barriers to movement and improving the treatment of movers. It lays out a core package of reforms, six “pillars” that call for: ]

•   Opening existing entry channels for more workers, especially those with low skills;

•   Ensuring basic human rights for migrants, from basic services, like education and health care, to the right to vote;

•   Lowering the transaction costs of migration;

•   Finding collaborative solutions that benefit both destination communities and migrants;

•   Easing internal migration; and

•   Adding migration as a component for origin countries’ development strategies.

However, the Report does not advocate a complete liberalisation of international migration, since the destination countries have a right to shape their societies. It argues, however, that there is a strong case for increased access for sectors with a high demand for labour, including for the low-skilled. This is particularly important for developed countries because their populations are ageing which may increase the demand for migrant workers [3].

The Report also recommends easing access and reducing the cost of official documents as steps towards lowering the barriers to legal migration. This will help stem the flow of irregular migrants, as people find it easier and less expensive to use legal channels.

Furthermore, receiving countries are urged to take steps to end discrimination against migrants. The Report stresses the importance of addressing the concerns of local residents and increasing awareness of migrants’ rights, in addition to working with employers, trade unions and community groups to combat xenophobia.

Despite the cases of intolerance, research commissioned by UNDP for the Report demonstrates that people in destination countries are generally supportive of further migration when jobs are available, and appreciate the gains–economic, social and cultural–that increased diversity can bring [3].

At present, the world is undergoing the most severe economic crisis in over half a century. Shrinking economies and layoffs are affecting millions of workers, including migrants. The current downturn should be seized as an opportunity to institute a new deal for migrants–one that will benefit workers at home and abroad while guarding against a protectionist backlash. With recovery, many of the same underlying trends that have been driving movement during the past half-century will resurface, attracting more people to move. It is vital that governments put in place the necessary measures to prepare for this [1].

There are also calls to create a new global regime to improve the management of migration: over 150 Countries now participate in the Global Forum on Migration and Development where government try to develop common responses to this common challenge [1].

5. Concluding Remark

Migration is an integral part of human history and global civilisation is shaped by continuous movement of peoples. However, at present, human mobility is facing serious challenges due to barriers to movement and mistreatment of movers arising mainly from misconceptions about migration. In spite of common misconceptions, an overwhelming majority of migrants do not move outside of their political boundary while only about 30% of international migration involves movement from developing to developed countries. Africans are the least mobile people. Only 3% of Africans live outside of their country of birth while less than 1% of Africans have moved to Europe so far.

Again, in spite of the common misconceptions, migration benefits both destination and origin countries. Contrary to commonly held beliefs, migrants typically boost economic output at no or little cost and give more than they take. Detailed investigations show that immigration generally increases employment in host communities, does not crowd out locals from the job market and improves rates of investment in new businesses and initiatives. Overall, the impact of migrants on public finances–both national and local–is relatively small, while there is ample evidence of gains in other areas such as social diversity and the capacity for innovation.

For the origin countries migration contributes to improvement in livelihood by improving incomes through remittances, by bringing in new ideas, knowledge and resources, that can enhance human and economic development. However, the origin countries must recognise that migration is no substitute to development. Many migrants are pushed out of developing countries due to poverty, political repression, and civil wars which must be addressed as matter of urgency. In other developing countries, the failing public systems resulted in exodus of highly skilled professionals such as medical doctors and nurses to the detriment of the local health services.

Therefore, if migration is to benefit these countries it must be integrated into wider national development strategies, with broader local and national efforts to reduce poverty and enhance social and economic development.

Finally, people will keep on moving. Human mobility is inevitable. The international community needs political courage to implement the reforms proposed by UNDP which will eventually benefit the origins and the destinations of the international migration.

References

[1]   UNDP, 2009. HDR Summary: http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Summary.pdf

[2]   National Geographic, Marcopolo expeditions, Human Migration Guide (6-8), 2005. (http://www.nationalgeographic.com/) . Accessed, 24 October 2009

[3]   UNDP, 2009. Human Development Report challenges common migration misconceptions. http://www.undp.org/hdr2009.shtml

[4]   The 2009 World Refugee Day Report. The World Refugee Day is celebrated on the 20th of June every year.

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